Metabolismo y nutrición del paciente en estado crítico
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30944/20117582.257Palabras clave:
nutrición, alimentación y dieta, cuidados crítico, metabolismo energético, restricción calórica, nutrición parenteral, nutrición enteralResumen
El modo de soporte nutricional en el paciente en estado crítico es motivo de controversia y abundan las opiniones al respecto. Algunos consideran las demandas calóricas como el objetivo principal de la nutrición en el estado crítico con base en un supuesto alto grado de hipermetabolismo, pero hemos demostrado que tan elevado hipermetabolismo realmente no existe y que, primordialmente, se deben atender las necesidades proteicas en esta condición que es altamente catabólica. El clima hormonal y humoral del estado crítico lleva a que buena parte de las necesidades calóricas sean atendidas por degradación de la proteína corporal. En el estado crítico existe una especie de dependencia de la proteína. El estado clínico del paciente en estrés agudo hace difícil adelantar investigaciones prospectivas y de asignación aleatoria. Una característica del estado crítico es la variabilidad y labilidad de las condiciones fisiopatológicas. En el Servicio de Soporte Metabólico y Nutricional del Hospital Universitario Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, desde hace muchos años, se reconoce la particular importancia del aporte proteico y se reduce el aporte calórico en forma de carbohidratos a no más de 600 kcal en 24 horas (150-200 g/24 horas), como fundamento para elegir el soporte nutricional, sea parenteral, entérico o mixto. En este artículo se revisan los fundamentos que llevan a considerar la proteína como el nutriente fundamental para el paciente en estado crítico
Descargas
Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.
Referencias bibliográficas
1. Freijer K, Wijnkoop L, Russell C, Koopmanschap M, Kruizenga H, Lhachimi S, et al. The view of European experts regarding health economics for medical nutrition in disease-related malnutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2015;69:539-45.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.280
2. Patiño JF, Pimiento S, Vergara A, Savino P, Rodriguez M, Escallón J: Hypocaloric support in the critical ill. World J Surgery. 1999;23:553-55.
https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00012346
3. Allingstrup M, Esmailzadeh N, Wilkens Knudsen A. Espersen K, Hartvig J, Wils J, et al. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nutr. 2012:31:462-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.12.006
4. Hoffer J, Bristian B. Appropriate protein provision in critical illness: a systematic and narrative review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012; 96:591-600.
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.032078
5. Hoffer J, Bristian B. Why critically Ill patients are protein deprived. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013; 37:300-9.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113478192
6. Kreyman G, Grosser S, Buggisch P, Gottschall C, Matthaei S, Greten H. Oxygen consumption and resting metabolic rate in sepsis, sepsis syndrome, and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:1012-9
https://doi.org/10.1097/00003246-199307000-00015
7. Weijs PJ, Looijaard WG, Beishuizen A, Girbes AR, Oudemansvan Straaten HM. Early high protein intake is associated with low mortality and energy overfeeding with high mortality in non-septic mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2014;18:701.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0701-z
8. Weijs PJ, Wischmeyer PE. Optimizing energy and protein balance in the ICU. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16:194- 201.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32835bdf7e
9. Weijs P, McClave S. The need to differentiate fear for energy overfeeding from future benefits of protein feeding: so much to gain. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2016;19:116-9.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000262
10. Hoffer J, Bistrian BR. Energy deficit is clinically relevant for critically ill patients: no. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41:339-41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-014-3518-y
11. Dickerson R. Hypocaloric, high protein nutrition therapy for critically ill patients with obesity. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29:786-91.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614542439
12. Weissman C, Kemper M, Askanazi J, Hyman A , Kinney J. Resting metabolic rate of the critically ill patient: Measured versus predicted. Anesthesiology. 1986;64:673-9.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-198606000-00001
13. Blackburn G, Wollner S, Bistrian B. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nut. 2012;31:462e-8e.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.12.006
14. Kondrup J. Nutritional-risk scoring systems in the intensive care unit. Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17:177-82.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000041
15. Japur C, Monteiro J, Marchini J, García R, Basile-Filho A. Can an adequate energy intake be able to reverse the negative nitrogen balance in mechanically ventilated critical ill patients? J Crit Care. 2010; 25:445-50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2009.05.009
16. Hoffer J. Human protein and amino acid requirements. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016. In Press
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115624084
17. Heidegger C, Berger M, Graf S, Zingg W, Damon P, Constanza M, et al. Optimisation of energy provision with supplemental parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: a randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2013;381:385-93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61351-8
18. Hoffer L. Protein requirement in critical illness. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2016. In press
https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0551
19. Marian M, Roberts S. Carbohydrate metabolism. A comparison of stress and non stress states. En: Cresci G, editor. Nutrition for the Critically Il Patient. A Guide to Practice. Second ed. , Boca Raton, Fl. CRC Press; 2015.
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18386-4
20. Moore F. Energy and the maintenance of the body cell mass. The Jonathan E. Rhoads Lecture. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1980;4:228-60.
https://doi.org/10.1177/014860718000400302
21. Arabi Y, Aldawood A, Haddad S, Al-Dorzi H, Tamim H, Jones G, et al. Permissive underfeeding or standard enteral feeding in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2398-408.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1502826
22. Heyland D. Should we PERMIT systematic underfeeding in all intensive care unit patients? Integrating the results of the PERMIT Study in our clinical practice guidelines. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:156-8.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115595797
23. Lohlein D. Principles and indications of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition. World J Surg. 1986;10:64-71.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01656091
24. Lohlein D. The concept of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition: one form of protein-sparing therapy. J Clin Nutr Gastroenterol. 1987;2:57.
25. Villazón A, Corona A, Terrazas F, Madrigal V. Gasto basal energético en el paciente quirúrgico. En: Patiño JF editor. Infección Quirúrgica. Bogotá, Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Centro Médico de los Andes; Bogotá: 1989; p. 173-190.
26. Jiang H, Sun M, Hefright B, Chen W, Daien C, Zeng J. Efficacy of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition for surgical patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition. 2011; 30:730-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.05.006
27. Singer P, Hiesmayr M, Biolo G, Felbinger T, Berger M, Goeters C, et al. Pragmatic approach to nutrition in the ICU: Expert opinion regarding which calorie protein target. Clin Nutr. 2014;33:246-51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2013.12.004
28. Hurt R, Frazier T, McClave S, Cave M. Pharmaconutrition for the obese critically ill patient. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011;35(Suppl.):S60-72.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111413775
29. Burke P, Young L, Bristian B. Metabolic vs nutrition support: a hypothesis. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2010;34:546-8.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607110362763
30. Hoffer LJ, Bistrian BR. What is the best nutritional support for critically ill patients? Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr. 2014;3:172-4.
31. Blackburn G, Bistrian B, Maini B, Schlamm H, Smith M. Nutritional and metabolic assessment of the hospitalized patient. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1977;1:11-21.
https://doi.org/10.1177/014860717700100101
32. Long C. Energy balance and carbohydrate metabolism in infection and sepsis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1977;30:1301-10.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/30.8.1301
33. Hollander J, Mechanick J. Nutrition support and the chronic critical illness syndrome. Nut Clin Pract. 2006;21:587-604.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426506021006587
34. Hill GL. Disorders of Nutrition and Metabolism in Clinical Surgery. Understanding and Management. Edinburgh, New York; Churchill Livingstone. , 1992.
35. Patiño JF. Soporte metabólico hipocalórico del paciente en estado séptico. En: Patiño JF editor. Infección Quirúrgica. Bogotá: Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Centro Médico de los Andes; 1989. p.161-72
36. Cerra F, Siegel J, Colman, Border J, Menamy R. Septic Autocannibalism. A failure of exogenous nutritional support. Ann Surg. 1980;192:570-8.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-198010000-00015
37. Cerra F. The hypermetabolism organ failure complex. World J Surg. 1987;11:173-81.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01656400
38. Singer P. Toward protein-energy goal-oriented therapy? Critical Care. 2009;13:188-9.
https://doi.org/10.1186/cc8042
39. Lawson CM, Miller KR, Smith VL. Appropiate protein and specific aminoacid delivery can improve patient outcome: Factor or fantasy? Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2011;13:380-7.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-011-0201-0
40. Menamy R, Birkhan R, Oswald R, Cerra F, Borde J. Multiple systems organ failure II. The effect of infusions of aminoacids and glucose. J Trauma.1981;21:228-36.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-198103000-00006
41. Rudman D, DiFalco T, Columbus J, Smith R, Salan A, Warren W. Maximal rates of excretion and synthesis of urea in normal and cirrhotic subjects. J Clin Invest. 1973;52:2241-9.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI107410
42. Dickerson RN, Maish GO, III, Croce MA, Minard G, Brown RO. Influence of aging on nitrogen accretion during critical illness. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2015;39:282-90.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113506939
43. Dickerson RN, Tidwell AC, Minard G, Croce MA, Brown RO. Predicting total urinary nitrogen excretion from urinary urea nitrogen excretion in multiple-trauma patients receiving specialized nutritional support. Nutrition. 2005;21:332-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.07.005
44. Hoffer J. How much protein do parenteral amino acid mixtures provide? Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 94:1396-8.
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.023390
45. Carpenter K. Protein and Energy: A study of changing ideas in nutrition. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1994.
46. Rooyackers O, Kouchek-Zadeh R, Tjader I, Nordberg A, Klaude M, Wernerman J. Whole body protein turnover in critically ill patients with multiple organ failure. Clin Nutr. 2015;34:95-100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.01.020
47. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in criticallyill patients. N Eng J Med. 2001;345:1359-67.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011300
48. Gamble J. Physiological information gained from studies on the life raft ration. In: The Harvey Society of New York, eds. The Harvey Lectures. Lancaster, PA: The Sciences Press Printing Co. 1947. p 247-73.
49. Long C, Nelson K, Akin J, Geiger J, Merric H, Blakemore W. A physiologic basis for the provision of fuel mixtures in normal and stressed patients. J Trauma. 1990;30:1077-86.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199009000-00003
50. Elwyn D. The unique role of glucose in artificial nutrition: impact of injury and malnutrition. Clin Nutr. 1988;7:195-202.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5614(88)90038-6
51. Askanazy J, Kvetan V, Goldiner P. Nutrition in the Acutely Ill. Anesthesia Clin North Am.1988;6:49-77.
52. Sobotka L, Soeters P, Raguso C, Kolliet P, Pichard C. Nutritional support in the critically ill and septic patients In: Sobotka L, Allison S, Furst P, Meier R, Pertkiewicz, Soeters P, editors. Basics in clinical nutrition. 3rd ed. Prague: House Galén; 2011 p.302-8.
53. Singer P, Berger M, Van den Berghe G, Biolo G, Calder P, Forbes A, et al. ESPEN guidelines on parenteral nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2009;28:387-400.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.04.024
54. Mehanna HM, Moledina J, Travis J. Refeeding syndrome: what it is, and how to prevent and treat it. Br Med J. 2008;336:1495-8.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a301
55. Hiesmayr M. Nutrition risk assessment in the ICU. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab. 2012;15:174-80.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328350767e
56. Patiño JF. Determinación del gasto energético básico. Rev Colomb Cir.1990;5:116-8.
57. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters P, Milants I, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:449-61.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa052521
58. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1283-97.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0810625
59. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Hypoglycemia and risk of death in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2012;367: 1108-18.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1204942
60. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes-2012. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(Suppl 1):S11-S63.
https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-s011
61. McClave S, Taylor B, Martindale R, Warren M, Johnson D, Braunschweig C, et al. Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:159-211.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115621863
62. Carpentier YA, Sobotka L. Lipids En: Sobotka L. editor. Basics in Clinical Nutrition. 4th ed. Praque: House Galén; 2011. p. 257-62.
63. Calder P, Grimble R. Nutrients that influence inflammation and immunity: ω3 fatty acids. En: Sobotka L. editor. Basics in Clinical Nutrition. 4th ed. Praque: House Galén; 2011. p. 292-8.
64. Calder P, Jensen G, Koletzko B, Singer P, Wanten G. Lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition of intensive care patients: current thinking and future directions. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:735-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-009-1744-5
65. Singer P, Shapiro H, Theilla M, Anbar R, Singer J, Cohen J. Anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3 fatty acids in critical illness: novel mechanisms and an integrative perspective. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:1580-92.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-008-1142-4
66. Mizock B, DeMichele S. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: Role of nutritional modulation of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nut Clin Pract. 2004;19:563-74.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426504019006563
67. Calder P. The 2008 ESPEN Sir David Cuthberson lecture: Fatty acids and inflammation - from the membrane to the nucleus and from the laboratory bench to the clinic. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:5-12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.11.003
68. Lee S, Gura K, Arsenault D, Bristian B, Puder M. Current clinical applications of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Nut Clin Pract. 2006;21:323-41.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426506021004323
69. Fraipont V, Preiser J. Energy estimation and measurement in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013;37:705-13.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113505868
70. Frankenfield D, Coleman A, Alam S, Cooney R. Analysis of estimation methods for resting metabolic rate in critically ill adults. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009;33:27-36.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607108322399
71. Krenisty J. Adjusted Body weight, Pro: evidence to support the use of adjusted body weight in calculating calorie requirements. Nutr Clin Pract. 2005;20:468-73.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426505020004468
72. Harris JA, Benedict FG. A biometric study of human basal metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1918;4(12):370-3.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.4.12.370
73. Mifflin M, Jeor S, Hill L, Scott B, Daugherty S, Koh Y. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. Am J Clin Nutr.1990;51:241-7.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241
74. MacDonald A, Hildebrandt L. Comparison of formula equations to determine energy expenditure in the critically ill patient. Nutrition. 2003;19:233-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(02)01033-X
75. Flancbaum L, Choban PS, Sambucco S, Verducci J, Burge JC. Comparison of indirect calorimetry, the Fick method, and prediction equations in estimating the energy requirements of critically ill patients. Am J Clin Nutr.1999; 69:461-6.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/69.3.461
76. Frankenfield D, Smith S, Cooney R. Validation of 2 approaches to predicting resting metabolic rate in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2004;28:259-64.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607104028004259
77. Wooley J, Frankenfield D. Energy. In: Mueller C, Kovacevich D, Mc Clave, S, Miller S, Scwartz D, editors. Second edition. The A.S.P.E.N. Nutrition Support Core Curriculum. Silver Spring: American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; 2012. p. 22 -35.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415859
78. Rahman A, Hasan R, Agarwala R, Martin C Day A, Heyland D. Identifying critically-ill patients who will benefit most from nutritional therapy: Further validation of the "modified NUTRIC" nutritional risk assessment tool. Clin Nutr. 2016;35:158-62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.01.015
79. Hoffer J. Protein requirements in protein-catabolic critical illness. Lecture presented at; 2016 Clinical Nutrition Week ASPEN. Conference; 2016, January 17, Austin, Texas.
80. Rombeau J, Caldwell M, Forlaw L, Guenter P. Atlas of Nutrition Support Techniques. Boston: Little Brown and Company; 1989.p.14.
81. Schlein K Coulter S. Best practices for determining resting energy expenditure in critically ill adults. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29:44-55.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533613515002
82. Schols A, Ferreira I, Franssen F, Gosker H, Janssens W, Muscaritoli M, et al. Nutritional assessment and therapy in COPD: a European Respiratory Society statement. Eur Respir J. 2014;44:1504-20.
https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00070914
83. Schols AM. The 2014 ESPEN Arvid Wretlind Lecture: Metabolism & nutrition: shifting paradigms in COPD management. Clinical Nutrition. 2015;34:1074-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.09.005
84. Schols A. Nutrition as a metabolic modulator in COPD. Chest. 2013;144:1340-5.
https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.13-0326
85. Rice T. Gluttony in the intensive care unit. 2013. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 2013;187:223-4.
https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201212-2228ED
86. Dickerson R. Hypocaloric feeding of obese patients in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2005;8: 189-96.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00075197-200503000-00014
87. Casaer M, van den Berghe G. Nutrition in the acute phase of critical illness. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1227-36.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1304623
88. Frankenfield, D, Smith J, Cooney R. Accelerated nitrogen loss after traumatic injury is not attenuated by achievement of energy balance. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1997;21:324-9.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607197021006324
89. Behrendt W, Bogatz V, Gianni G. The influence of posttraumatic parenteral calorie and nitrogen supply upon the cumulative nitrogen balance. Infusionstherapie. 1990;17:32-9.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000222438
90. Preiser J, van Zanten A, Berger M, Biolo G, Casaer M, Doig G, et al. Metabolic and nutritional support of critically ill patients: consensus and controversies. Crit Care. 2015;19:2-11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-015-0737-8
91. Wilmore DW. The metabolic management of the critically ill. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company; 1977. p. 36.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2382-2
92. Dudrick SJ, MacFadyen BV Jr, Van Buren CT, Ruger R, Maynard A: Parenteral hyperalimentation; metabolic problems and solutions. Ann Surg. 1972;19:259-64.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-197209000-00001
93. Blackburn G, Wollner S, Bistrian B. Nutrition support in the intensive care unit. Arch Surg. 2010;145:533-8.
https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.2010.97
94. Meng H. Fat Emulsions in Parenteral Nutrition. En: Fischer J, editor. Total Parenteral Nutrition. Boston: Little Brown and Company; 1976. p.305.
95. Wanten G, Calder P. Immune modulation by parenteral lipid emulsions. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1171-84.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1171
96. Patiño JF, Escallón J, Gómez G, Savino P, Rodríguez Y. Los lípidos de tercera generación. Nuevas emulsiones con triglicéridos de cadena media para nutrición parenteral. Rev Colomb Cir.1988;3:133-36.
97. Bessey PQ. Metabolic response to critical illness. En: Wilmore D, Cheung L, Harken A, Holcroft J, Meakins J, editors. Scientific American Surgery. New York: Scientific American Inc.; 1995.
98. Monk DN, Plank LD, French-Arcas G, Finn P, Streat S, Hill G. Sequential changes in the metabolic response in critically injured patients in the first 25 days after blunt trauma. Ann Surg. 1996;223:395.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-199604000-00008
99. Soeters MR, Soeters PB. The evolutionary benefit of insulin resistance. Clin Nutr. 2012; 31:1002-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2012.05.011
100. Cuthbertson D. Surgical metabolism: historical and evolutionary aspects. En: Metabolism and the Response to Injury. Wilkinson A and Cuthbertson D (editors). Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc; 1975.
101. Patiño JF. Metabolismo Nutrición y Shock en el Paciente Quirúrgico. Tercera edición. Bogotá: Fundación Lucía Patiño Osorio; 1985.
102. Martindale R, Delegue M, McClave S, Monroe C, Smith V, Kiraly L. Nutrition delivery for obese ICU patients: Delivery issues, lack of guidelines, and missed opportunities. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011;35(Suppl.):S80-7.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415532
103. 103) McClave S, Kushner R, van Way III C, Cave M, Delegue M, Dibaise J, et al. Nutrition therapy of the severely obese, critically ill patient: Summation of conclusions and recommendations. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011; 35(Suppl.):S88-96.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415111
104. Crook M, Hally V, Panteli J. The importance of the refeeding syndrome. Nutrition. 2001;17: 632-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00542-1
105. Marik P, Hooper M. Normocaloric versus hypocaloric feeding on the outcomes of ICU patients: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42:316-23.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-015-4131-4
106. Nicolo M, Heyland DK, Chittams J, Sammarco T, Compher C. Clinical outcomes related toprotein delivery in a critically ill population: a multicenter, multinational observation study. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:45-51.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115583675
107. Singer P, Anbar R, Cohen J, Shapiro H, Shalita-Chesner M, Lev S, Grozovski E, et al. The tight calorie control study (TICACOS): a prospective, randomized, controlled pilot study of nutritional support in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:601-9.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-011-2146-z
108. Wanten G, Calder P. Immune modulation by parenteral lipidemulsions. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1171-84.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1171
109. Calder PC. Lipids for intravenous nutrition in the hospitalized adult patients: a multiple choice of options. Proc Nutr Soc. 2013;72:263-76.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665113001250
110. Kleck S, Chambrier C, Singer P, Rubin M, Bowling T, Staun M, et al. Four-week parenteral nutrition using a third generation lipid emulsion (SMOFlipid) - A double-blind, randomized, multicenter study in adults. Clin Nutr. 2013;32:224-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2012.06.011
111. Calder P, Jensen G, Koletzko B, Singer P, Wanten G. Lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition of intensive care patients: current thinking and future directions. Int Care Med. 2010;36:735-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-009-1744-5
112. Vanek V, Sedner D, Bristrian B, Gura K, Valentine C, et al. A.S.P.E.N. Position Paper: Clinical Role for Alternative Intravenous Fat Emulsions. Nut Clin Pract 2012; 27:150-92.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533612439896
113. Berger M. The 2013 Arvid Wretlind lecture: Evolving concepts in parenteral nutrition. Clin Nutr. 2014;33:563-70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.03.005
114. Green P, Theilla M, Singer P. Lipid metabolism in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2016. In press.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000253
115. Dudrick S, Wilmore D, Vars H, Rhoads J. Long-term total parenteral nutrition with growth, development and positive nitrogen balance. Surgery. 1968;64:134-42.
116. Thibault R, Pichard C. Nutrition and clinical outcome in intensive care patients. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:177-83.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833574b9
117. Berger M, Soguel L, Charriere M, Theriault B, Pralong F, SchallerM. Impact of the reduction of the recommended energy target in the ICU on protein delivery and clinical outcomes. Clinical Nutriton. (2016). In press
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.12.002
118. Rice T, Wheeler A, Thompson B, Steingrub J, Hite R, Moss M, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012; 307:795-803.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.137
119. Marik PE. Feeding critically ill patients the right ''whey'': thinking outside the box. Ann Intensive Care. 2015;5:11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-015-0051-2
120. van Zanten A. Should we increase protein delivery during critical illness? J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2016. In press
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115626905
https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2014.280
2. Patiño JF, Pimiento S, Vergara A, Savino P, Rodriguez M, Escallón J: Hypocaloric support in the critical ill. World J Surgery. 1999;23:553-55.
https://doi.org/10.1007/PL00012346
3. Allingstrup M, Esmailzadeh N, Wilkens Knudsen A. Espersen K, Hartvig J, Wils J, et al. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nutr. 2012:31:462-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.12.006
4. Hoffer J, Bristian B. Appropriate protein provision in critical illness: a systematic and narrative review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012; 96:591-600.
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.032078
5. Hoffer J, Bristian B. Why critically Ill patients are protein deprived. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013; 37:300-9.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113478192
6. Kreyman G, Grosser S, Buggisch P, Gottschall C, Matthaei S, Greten H. Oxygen consumption and resting metabolic rate in sepsis, sepsis syndrome, and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 1993;21:1012-9
https://doi.org/10.1097/00003246-199307000-00015
7. Weijs PJ, Looijaard WG, Beishuizen A, Girbes AR, Oudemansvan Straaten HM. Early high protein intake is associated with low mortality and energy overfeeding with high mortality in non-septic mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2014;18:701.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0701-z
8. Weijs PJ, Wischmeyer PE. Optimizing energy and protein balance in the ICU. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16:194- 201.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32835bdf7e
9. Weijs P, McClave S. The need to differentiate fear for energy overfeeding from future benefits of protein feeding: so much to gain. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2016;19:116-9.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000262
10. Hoffer J, Bistrian BR. Energy deficit is clinically relevant for critically ill patients: no. Intensive Care Med. 2015;41:339-41.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-014-3518-y
11. Dickerson R. Hypocaloric, high protein nutrition therapy for critically ill patients with obesity. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29:786-91.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533614542439
12. Weissman C, Kemper M, Askanazi J, Hyman A , Kinney J. Resting metabolic rate of the critically ill patient: Measured versus predicted. Anesthesiology. 1986;64:673-9.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-198606000-00001
13. Blackburn G, Wollner S, Bistrian B. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nut. 2012;31:462e-8e.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.12.006
14. Kondrup J. Nutritional-risk scoring systems in the intensive care unit. Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17:177-82.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000041
15. Japur C, Monteiro J, Marchini J, García R, Basile-Filho A. Can an adequate energy intake be able to reverse the negative nitrogen balance in mechanically ventilated critical ill patients? J Crit Care. 2010; 25:445-50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2009.05.009
16. Hoffer J. Human protein and amino acid requirements. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016. In Press
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115624084
17. Heidegger C, Berger M, Graf S, Zingg W, Damon P, Constanza M, et al. Optimisation of energy provision with supplemental parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: a randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2013;381:385-93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61351-8
18. Hoffer L. Protein requirement in critical illness. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2016. In press
https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0551
19. Marian M, Roberts S. Carbohydrate metabolism. A comparison of stress and non stress states. En: Cresci G, editor. Nutrition for the Critically Il Patient. A Guide to Practice. Second ed. , Boca Raton, Fl. CRC Press; 2015.
https://doi.org/10.1201/b18386-4
20. Moore F. Energy and the maintenance of the body cell mass. The Jonathan E. Rhoads Lecture. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1980;4:228-60.
https://doi.org/10.1177/014860718000400302
21. Arabi Y, Aldawood A, Haddad S, Al-Dorzi H, Tamim H, Jones G, et al. Permissive underfeeding or standard enteral feeding in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2398-408.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1502826
22. Heyland D. Should we PERMIT systematic underfeeding in all intensive care unit patients? Integrating the results of the PERMIT Study in our clinical practice guidelines. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:156-8.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115595797
23. Lohlein D. Principles and indications of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition. World J Surg. 1986;10:64-71.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01656091
24. Lohlein D. The concept of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition: one form of protein-sparing therapy. J Clin Nutr Gastroenterol. 1987;2:57.
25. Villazón A, Corona A, Terrazas F, Madrigal V. Gasto basal energético en el paciente quirúrgico. En: Patiño JF editor. Infección Quirúrgica. Bogotá, Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Centro Médico de los Andes; Bogotá: 1989; p. 173-190.
26. Jiang H, Sun M, Hefright B, Chen W, Daien C, Zeng J. Efficacy of hypocaloric parenteral nutrition for surgical patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Nutrition. 2011; 30:730-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2011.05.006
27. Singer P, Hiesmayr M, Biolo G, Felbinger T, Berger M, Goeters C, et al. Pragmatic approach to nutrition in the ICU: Expert opinion regarding which calorie protein target. Clin Nutr. 2014;33:246-51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2013.12.004
28. Hurt R, Frazier T, McClave S, Cave M. Pharmaconutrition for the obese critically ill patient. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011;35(Suppl.):S60-72.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111413775
29. Burke P, Young L, Bristian B. Metabolic vs nutrition support: a hypothesis. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2010;34:546-8.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607110362763
30. Hoffer LJ, Bistrian BR. What is the best nutritional support for critically ill patients? Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr. 2014;3:172-4.
31. Blackburn G, Bistrian B, Maini B, Schlamm H, Smith M. Nutritional and metabolic assessment of the hospitalized patient. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1977;1:11-21.
https://doi.org/10.1177/014860717700100101
32. Long C. Energy balance and carbohydrate metabolism in infection and sepsis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1977;30:1301-10.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/30.8.1301
33. Hollander J, Mechanick J. Nutrition support and the chronic critical illness syndrome. Nut Clin Pract. 2006;21:587-604.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426506021006587
34. Hill GL. Disorders of Nutrition and Metabolism in Clinical Surgery. Understanding and Management. Edinburgh, New York; Churchill Livingstone. , 1992.
35. Patiño JF. Soporte metabólico hipocalórico del paciente en estado séptico. En: Patiño JF editor. Infección Quirúrgica. Bogotá: Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Centro Médico de los Andes; 1989. p.161-72
36. Cerra F, Siegel J, Colman, Border J, Menamy R. Septic Autocannibalism. A failure of exogenous nutritional support. Ann Surg. 1980;192:570-8.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-198010000-00015
37. Cerra F. The hypermetabolism organ failure complex. World J Surg. 1987;11:173-81.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01656400
38. Singer P. Toward protein-energy goal-oriented therapy? Critical Care. 2009;13:188-9.
https://doi.org/10.1186/cc8042
39. Lawson CM, Miller KR, Smith VL. Appropiate protein and specific aminoacid delivery can improve patient outcome: Factor or fantasy? Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2011;13:380-7.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-011-0201-0
40. Menamy R, Birkhan R, Oswald R, Cerra F, Borde J. Multiple systems organ failure II. The effect of infusions of aminoacids and glucose. J Trauma.1981;21:228-36.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-198103000-00006
41. Rudman D, DiFalco T, Columbus J, Smith R, Salan A, Warren W. Maximal rates of excretion and synthesis of urea in normal and cirrhotic subjects. J Clin Invest. 1973;52:2241-9.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI107410
42. Dickerson RN, Maish GO, III, Croce MA, Minard G, Brown RO. Influence of aging on nitrogen accretion during critical illness. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2015;39:282-90.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113506939
43. Dickerson RN, Tidwell AC, Minard G, Croce MA, Brown RO. Predicting total urinary nitrogen excretion from urinary urea nitrogen excretion in multiple-trauma patients receiving specialized nutritional support. Nutrition. 2005;21:332-8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2004.07.005
44. Hoffer J. How much protein do parenteral amino acid mixtures provide? Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 94:1396-8.
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.023390
45. Carpenter K. Protein and Energy: A study of changing ideas in nutrition. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1994.
46. Rooyackers O, Kouchek-Zadeh R, Tjader I, Nordberg A, Klaude M, Wernerman J. Whole body protein turnover in critically ill patients with multiple organ failure. Clin Nutr. 2015;34:95-100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.01.020
47. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in criticallyill patients. N Eng J Med. 2001;345:1359-67.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011300
48. Gamble J. Physiological information gained from studies on the life raft ration. In: The Harvey Society of New York, eds. The Harvey Lectures. Lancaster, PA: The Sciences Press Printing Co. 1947. p 247-73.
49. Long C, Nelson K, Akin J, Geiger J, Merric H, Blakemore W. A physiologic basis for the provision of fuel mixtures in normal and stressed patients. J Trauma. 1990;30:1077-86.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00005373-199009000-00003
50. Elwyn D. The unique role of glucose in artificial nutrition: impact of injury and malnutrition. Clin Nutr. 1988;7:195-202.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5614(88)90038-6
51. Askanazy J, Kvetan V, Goldiner P. Nutrition in the Acutely Ill. Anesthesia Clin North Am.1988;6:49-77.
52. Sobotka L, Soeters P, Raguso C, Kolliet P, Pichard C. Nutritional support in the critically ill and septic patients In: Sobotka L, Allison S, Furst P, Meier R, Pertkiewicz, Soeters P, editors. Basics in clinical nutrition. 3rd ed. Prague: House Galén; 2011 p.302-8.
53. Singer P, Berger M, Van den Berghe G, Biolo G, Calder P, Forbes A, et al. ESPEN guidelines on parenteral nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2009;28:387-400.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.04.024
54. Mehanna HM, Moledina J, Travis J. Refeeding syndrome: what it is, and how to prevent and treat it. Br Med J. 2008;336:1495-8.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a301
55. Hiesmayr M. Nutrition risk assessment in the ICU. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab. 2012;15:174-80.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e328350767e
56. Patiño JF. Determinación del gasto energético básico. Rev Colomb Cir.1990;5:116-8.
57. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters P, Milants I, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354:449-61.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa052521
58. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:1283-97.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0810625
59. The NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators. Hypoglycemia and risk of death in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2012;367: 1108-18.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1204942
60. American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes-2012. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(Suppl 1):S11-S63.
https://doi.org/10.2337/dc12-s011
61. McClave S, Taylor B, Martindale R, Warren M, Johnson D, Braunschweig C, et al. Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:159-211.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115621863
62. Carpentier YA, Sobotka L. Lipids En: Sobotka L. editor. Basics in Clinical Nutrition. 4th ed. Praque: House Galén; 2011. p. 257-62.
63. Calder P, Grimble R. Nutrients that influence inflammation and immunity: ω3 fatty acids. En: Sobotka L. editor. Basics in Clinical Nutrition. 4th ed. Praque: House Galén; 2011. p. 292-8.
64. Calder P, Jensen G, Koletzko B, Singer P, Wanten G. Lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition of intensive care patients: current thinking and future directions. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36:735-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-009-1744-5
65. Singer P, Shapiro H, Theilla M, Anbar R, Singer J, Cohen J. Anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3 fatty acids in critical illness: novel mechanisms and an integrative perspective. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:1580-92.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-008-1142-4
66. Mizock B, DeMichele S. The acute respiratory distress syndrome: Role of nutritional modulation of inflammation through dietary lipids. Nut Clin Pract. 2004;19:563-74.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426504019006563
67. Calder P. The 2008 ESPEN Sir David Cuthberson lecture: Fatty acids and inflammation - from the membrane to the nucleus and from the laboratory bench to the clinic. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:5-12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.11.003
68. Lee S, Gura K, Arsenault D, Bristian B, Puder M. Current clinical applications of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Nut Clin Pract. 2006;21:323-41.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426506021004323
69. Fraipont V, Preiser J. Energy estimation and measurement in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013;37:705-13.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607113505868
70. Frankenfield D, Coleman A, Alam S, Cooney R. Analysis of estimation methods for resting metabolic rate in critically ill adults. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009;33:27-36.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607108322399
71. Krenisty J. Adjusted Body weight, Pro: evidence to support the use of adjusted body weight in calculating calorie requirements. Nutr Clin Pract. 2005;20:468-73.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0115426505020004468
72. Harris JA, Benedict FG. A biometric study of human basal metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1918;4(12):370-3.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.4.12.370
73. Mifflin M, Jeor S, Hill L, Scott B, Daugherty S, Koh Y. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals. Am J Clin Nutr.1990;51:241-7.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/51.2.241
74. MacDonald A, Hildebrandt L. Comparison of formula equations to determine energy expenditure in the critically ill patient. Nutrition. 2003;19:233-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(02)01033-X
75. Flancbaum L, Choban PS, Sambucco S, Verducci J, Burge JC. Comparison of indirect calorimetry, the Fick method, and prediction equations in estimating the energy requirements of critically ill patients. Am J Clin Nutr.1999; 69:461-6.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/69.3.461
76. Frankenfield D, Smith S, Cooney R. Validation of 2 approaches to predicting resting metabolic rate in critically ill patients. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2004;28:259-64.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607104028004259
77. Wooley J, Frankenfield D. Energy. In: Mueller C, Kovacevich D, Mc Clave, S, Miller S, Scwartz D, editors. Second edition. The A.S.P.E.N. Nutrition Support Core Curriculum. Silver Spring: American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; 2012. p. 22 -35.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415859
78. Rahman A, Hasan R, Agarwala R, Martin C Day A, Heyland D. Identifying critically-ill patients who will benefit most from nutritional therapy: Further validation of the "modified NUTRIC" nutritional risk assessment tool. Clin Nutr. 2016;35:158-62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.01.015
79. Hoffer J. Protein requirements in protein-catabolic critical illness. Lecture presented at; 2016 Clinical Nutrition Week ASPEN. Conference; 2016, January 17, Austin, Texas.
80. Rombeau J, Caldwell M, Forlaw L, Guenter P. Atlas of Nutrition Support Techniques. Boston: Little Brown and Company; 1989.p.14.
81. Schlein K Coulter S. Best practices for determining resting energy expenditure in critically ill adults. Nutr Clin Pract. 2014;29:44-55.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533613515002
82. Schols A, Ferreira I, Franssen F, Gosker H, Janssens W, Muscaritoli M, et al. Nutritional assessment and therapy in COPD: a European Respiratory Society statement. Eur Respir J. 2014;44:1504-20.
https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00070914
83. Schols AM. The 2014 ESPEN Arvid Wretlind Lecture: Metabolism & nutrition: shifting paradigms in COPD management. Clinical Nutrition. 2015;34:1074-9.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.09.005
84. Schols A. Nutrition as a metabolic modulator in COPD. Chest. 2013;144:1340-5.
https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.13-0326
85. Rice T. Gluttony in the intensive care unit. 2013. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 2013;187:223-4.
https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201212-2228ED
86. Dickerson R. Hypocaloric feeding of obese patients in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2005;8: 189-96.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00075197-200503000-00014
87. Casaer M, van den Berghe G. Nutrition in the acute phase of critical illness. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1227-36.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1304623
88. Frankenfield, D, Smith J, Cooney R. Accelerated nitrogen loss after traumatic injury is not attenuated by achievement of energy balance. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1997;21:324-9.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607197021006324
89. Behrendt W, Bogatz V, Gianni G. The influence of posttraumatic parenteral calorie and nitrogen supply upon the cumulative nitrogen balance. Infusionstherapie. 1990;17:32-9.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000222438
90. Preiser J, van Zanten A, Berger M, Biolo G, Casaer M, Doig G, et al. Metabolic and nutritional support of critically ill patients: consensus and controversies. Crit Care. 2015;19:2-11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-015-0737-8
91. Wilmore DW. The metabolic management of the critically ill. New York: Plenum Medical Book Company; 1977. p. 36.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-2382-2
92. Dudrick SJ, MacFadyen BV Jr, Van Buren CT, Ruger R, Maynard A: Parenteral hyperalimentation; metabolic problems and solutions. Ann Surg. 1972;19:259-64.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-197209000-00001
93. Blackburn G, Wollner S, Bistrian B. Nutrition support in the intensive care unit. Arch Surg. 2010;145:533-8.
https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.2010.97
94. Meng H. Fat Emulsions in Parenteral Nutrition. En: Fischer J, editor. Total Parenteral Nutrition. Boston: Little Brown and Company; 1976. p.305.
95. Wanten G, Calder P. Immune modulation by parenteral lipid emulsions. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1171-84.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1171
96. Patiño JF, Escallón J, Gómez G, Savino P, Rodríguez Y. Los lípidos de tercera generación. Nuevas emulsiones con triglicéridos de cadena media para nutrición parenteral. Rev Colomb Cir.1988;3:133-36.
97. Bessey PQ. Metabolic response to critical illness. En: Wilmore D, Cheung L, Harken A, Holcroft J, Meakins J, editors. Scientific American Surgery. New York: Scientific American Inc.; 1995.
98. Monk DN, Plank LD, French-Arcas G, Finn P, Streat S, Hill G. Sequential changes in the metabolic response in critically injured patients in the first 25 days after blunt trauma. Ann Surg. 1996;223:395.
https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-199604000-00008
99. Soeters MR, Soeters PB. The evolutionary benefit of insulin resistance. Clin Nutr. 2012; 31:1002-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2012.05.011
100. Cuthbertson D. Surgical metabolism: historical and evolutionary aspects. En: Metabolism and the Response to Injury. Wilkinson A and Cuthbertson D (editors). Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc; 1975.
101. Patiño JF. Metabolismo Nutrición y Shock en el Paciente Quirúrgico. Tercera edición. Bogotá: Fundación Lucía Patiño Osorio; 1985.
102. Martindale R, Delegue M, McClave S, Monroe C, Smith V, Kiraly L. Nutrition delivery for obese ICU patients: Delivery issues, lack of guidelines, and missed opportunities. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011;35(Suppl.):S80-7.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415532
103. 103) McClave S, Kushner R, van Way III C, Cave M, Delegue M, Dibaise J, et al. Nutrition therapy of the severely obese, critically ill patient: Summation of conclusions and recommendations. J Parenter Enteral Nutrition. 2011; 35(Suppl.):S88-96.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607111415111
104. Crook M, Hally V, Panteli J. The importance of the refeeding syndrome. Nutrition. 2001;17: 632-7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00542-1
105. Marik P, Hooper M. Normocaloric versus hypocaloric feeding on the outcomes of ICU patients: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42:316-23.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-015-4131-4
106. Nicolo M, Heyland DK, Chittams J, Sammarco T, Compher C. Clinical outcomes related toprotein delivery in a critically ill population: a multicenter, multinational observation study. J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2016;40:45-51.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115583675
107. Singer P, Anbar R, Cohen J, Shapiro H, Shalita-Chesner M, Lev S, Grozovski E, et al. The tight calorie control study (TICACOS): a prospective, randomized, controlled pilot study of nutritional support in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:601-9.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-011-2146-z
108. Wanten G, Calder P. Immune modulation by parenteral lipidemulsions. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1171-84.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.5.1171
109. Calder PC. Lipids for intravenous nutrition in the hospitalized adult patients: a multiple choice of options. Proc Nutr Soc. 2013;72:263-76.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665113001250
110. Kleck S, Chambrier C, Singer P, Rubin M, Bowling T, Staun M, et al. Four-week parenteral nutrition using a third generation lipid emulsion (SMOFlipid) - A double-blind, randomized, multicenter study in adults. Clin Nutr. 2013;32:224-31.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2012.06.011
111. Calder P, Jensen G, Koletzko B, Singer P, Wanten G. Lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition of intensive care patients: current thinking and future directions. Int Care Med. 2010;36:735-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00134-009-1744-5
112. Vanek V, Sedner D, Bristrian B, Gura K, Valentine C, et al. A.S.P.E.N. Position Paper: Clinical Role for Alternative Intravenous Fat Emulsions. Nut Clin Pract 2012; 27:150-92.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533612439896
113. Berger M. The 2013 Arvid Wretlind lecture: Evolving concepts in parenteral nutrition. Clin Nutr. 2014;33:563-70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2014.03.005
114. Green P, Theilla M, Singer P. Lipid metabolism in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2016. In press.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0000000000000253
115. Dudrick S, Wilmore D, Vars H, Rhoads J. Long-term total parenteral nutrition with growth, development and positive nitrogen balance. Surgery. 1968;64:134-42.
116. Thibault R, Pichard C. Nutrition and clinical outcome in intensive care patients. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:177-83.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MCO.0b013e32833574b9
117. Berger M, Soguel L, Charriere M, Theriault B, Pralong F, SchallerM. Impact of the reduction of the recommended energy target in the ICU on protein delivery and clinical outcomes. Clinical Nutriton. (2016). In press
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2015.12.002
118. Rice T, Wheeler A, Thompson B, Steingrub J, Hite R, Moss M, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012; 307:795-803.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.137
119. Marik PE. Feeding critically ill patients the right ''whey'': thinking outside the box. Ann Intensive Care. 2015;5:11.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13613-015-0051-2
120. van Zanten A. Should we increase protein delivery during critical illness? J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2016. In press
https://doi.org/10.1177/0148607115626905
Descargas
Publicado
2016-04-02
Cómo citar
(1)
Savino, P. .; Patiño, . J. F. Metabolismo Y nutrición Del Paciente En Estado crítico. Rev Colomb Cir 2016, 31, 108-127.
Número
Sección
Artículo de Revisión
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2016 Revista Colombiana de Cirugía
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
Todos los textos incluidos en la Revista Colombiana de Cirugía están protegidos por derechos de autor. Las opiniones expresadas en los artículos firmados son las de los autores y no coinciden necesariamente con las de los directores o los editores de la Revista Colombiana de Cirugía. Las sugerencias diagnósticas o terapéuticas como elección de productos, dosificación y métodos de empleo corresponden a la experiencia y al criterio de los autores.
.jpg)
